First passed in 1990 and updated in 2020, the law (C.R.S.A. § 22-1-120) protects the press freedom of Colorado’s public school student journalists and their advisers. The law says that student media cannot be censored except in certain very narrow circumstances, and that school employees cannot be penalized for refusing to infringe on a student’s press rights.
This brochure, which was last updated in August 2023, provides information about the law and its impacts on student journalists, advisers and school officials. It is not exhaustive and should not be considered a substitute for legal advice. If you have specific questions about the law, please contact the Student Press Law Center’s legal hotline at splc.org/legalhelp.
Jump to:
• About the Student Press Law Center
• Executive Summary
• Public School Students
• Advisers
• School officials
• Resources
About the Student Press Law Center
The Student Press Law Center (SPLC) is an independent, non-partisan 501c(3) which works at the intersection of law, journalism and education to promote, support and defend the First Amendment and press freedom rights of student journalists and their advisers at the high school and college level. The SPLC uses the law to help students of all ages meaningfully participate in civic life and learn essential skills, ethics and values through the vehicle of journalism. The SPLC provides information, training and legal assistance at no charge to student journalists and the educators who work with them. For more information, visit www.splc.org or contact our legal hotline at splc.org/legalhelp.
Executive Summary
Details about the law and its protections for public school student journalists and advisers are enclosed within. To summarize, the law says:
- Student editors determine the news, opinion and advertising content of school-sponsored media.
- School officials can prohibit school-sponsored media that:
- Is obscene;
- Is libelous, slanderous, or defamatory under state law;
- Is false as to any person who is not a public figure or involved in a matter of public concern;
- Creates a clear and present danger of the commission of unlawful acts, the violation of lawful school regulations, or the material and substantial disruption of the orderly operation of the school;
- Violates the rights of others to privacy; or
- Threatens violence to property or persons.
- Prior restraint of lawful student speech is prohibited.
- School employees cannot be penalized for refusing to censor or protecting lawful student media.
- School districts must have a written publications code, which cannot be stricter than this law and must be made available to students and teachers at the beginning of the school year.
Other laws may also protect your speech from censorship. Contact the Student Press Law Center’s legal hotline immediately at splc.org/legalhelp if you are or believe you may be receiving pressure to cut, edit, or amend your student media.
Calls to the legal hotline are confidential until and unless you approve otherwise.
Public School Students
Summary
The law protects the press freedom of Colorado’s public school student journalists. The law says that student media cannot be censored except in certain very narrow circumstances, and that school employees cannot be penalized for refusing to infringe on their students’ press rights.
School-sponsored media
The law makes clear that any publication “written substantially by students” and “generally made available throughout a public school” is a public forum for the students of that school. This includes newspapers, yearbooks, broadcast channels, audio or video programs, literary magazines, and online news.
Media content
Student editors are “responsible for determining the news, opinion, and advertising content” of school-sponsored media. This also means that you are responsible for the final product, including any praise, criticisms, or (in very rare circumstances) any potential lawsuits.
Censorship
Censorship can take many forms, but in general it is any action that is meant to stop, dissuade, or discourage you from producing or distributing student media. Sometimes it is overt (“you may not publish this”) but sometimes there are more subtle forms of censorship. This can include, but is not limited to, strong suggestions that a story be withheld or changed, “reviewing” a student piece until the publication deadline has passed, threats to change your grades unless some aspect of a piece is changed, outright or suggested cuts to your student media program’s funding following a controversial piece, reassignment of your adviser, or the disappearance/destruction of student media once you have distributed it. If you believe you have experienced or are at risk of censorship, contact the SPLC’s legal hotline immediately at splc.org/legalhelp/.
When possible, get in writing the reason your work is being censored. At the very least, write down all the details as soon as you can, along with the date and time of any conversations.
Prior restraint and prior review
Prior restraint is when a school official tells you that you cannot publish a story or takes action to prevent you from doing so. The law is clear that no school district shall exercise any kind of prior restraint unless your media includes the unprotected speech detailed below.
School officials sometimes engage in prior review, which is where they view student media before it is distributed. If your school officials engage in prior review and hold your student media for more than 72 hours, contact the SPLC’s legal hotline at splc.org/legalhelp/.
Unprotected speech
The law does allow for school officials to restrict some student media, just as you can be penalized for saying certain things in class.
School officials may only prohibit student media that:
- Is obscene;
- Is libelous, slanderous, or defamatory under state law;
- Is false as to any person who is not a public figure or involved in a matter of public concern;
- Creates a clear and present danger of the commission of unlawful acts, the violation of lawful school regulations, or the material and substantial disruption of the orderly operation of the school;
- Violates the rights of others to privacy; or
- Threatens violence to property or persons.
Even if your speech falls into one of these categories, it may be protected by the First Amendment or other laws. Just because this law says your speech can be censored for these reasons does not mean it should. If your student media is censored, contact the SPLC’s legal hotline immediately at splc.org/legalhelp.
If content in your media does not fall into one of these categories, school officials — including your principal or your adviser — cannot stop you from producing or distributing it. They also cannot penalize you or your student media adviser for your decision to produce or distribute the media.
Following sound journalism practices and ethics will help ensure your work does not meet any of these criteria. If you are concerned that your work falls into one of these categories, you should talk with your adviser, the Student Press Law Center, or other legal counsel. You can do this at any point in the research, production or distribution process.
School policy
Every school district is required to have a written publications code. This policy shall include “reasonable provisions for the time, place, and manner of conducting free expression” but cannot restrict your speech beyond this law. It must be “distributed, posted, or otherwise made available to all students and teachers” at the beginning of the school year.
These policies are a public record. If your district does not have such a policy or it does not match what is described in this brochure, contact the Student Press Law Center.
If you’ve been censored
If you believe or suspect that you have been censored or are about to be censored, contact the SPLC’s legal hotline as soon as possible at splc.org/legalhelp. There are a range of options available to you. Whenever possible, write down the dates, times and description of events as they happen to help keep your facts in order and establish a timeline.
Calls to the legal hotline are confidential unless and until you approve otherwise.
FAQs
What is libel? What is slander?
Libel is the publication of false statements of fact that seriously harm a person’s reputation. Slander is the speaking of false statements of fact that seriously harm a person’s reputation. If a statement is true, it cannot be libelous or slanderous, no matter how harmful it is to the person’s reputation.
What is a “material and substantial disruption”?
A substantial disruption is anything that could so interfere with the school day as to make normal school activities nearly impossible. This is decided on a case-by-case basis, but could include walkouts, fights, interruptions to class, or harassment of teachers or students. This “substantial disruption” standard was established by the U.S. Supreme Court in the Tinker vs. Des Moines decision many years ago, so your administrators and advisers have plenty of practice applying it to student speech. Remember, the law does not prohibit you from reporting on these things, just from inciting them.
Isn’t freedom of the press protected by the First Amendment?
Yes, but the U.S. Supreme Court has given public schools some authority to restrict the activities of students. A U.S. Supreme Court decision known as Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District allows school officials to restrict student speech in certain narrow circumstances (including if it would cause a “material disruption” in the school community or could be libelous or slanderous). Another Supreme Court decision known as Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier allowed schools broader authority to censor student journalist’s speech. As a result, many school districts have censored students for reasons that have nothing to do with legitimate pedagogical concerns. This law restores key aspects of Tinker as it applies to student journalists and puts your speech back in line with the standard established by the Tinker decision.
If my school is sued for libel because of content in our student media, who is responsible?
You. However, libel lawsuits against high school journalists are exceptionally rare. (In fact, when this brochure went to press, there had not been a single reported case in the U.S. finding a school district liable for work published by its student media.) As long as you are following standard journalistic practices you should not have to worry.
Can my adviser tell me there are problems with my article?
Your adviser may teach you English and journalism standards, and may give you feedback regarding your article including questioning if something you have written is untruthful or ensuring you are prepared for any controversy. Unless your speech falls within one of the unprotected speech categories above, however, they cannot stop you from distributing your work.
How do I know if I’m being censored?
If nobody has expressly told you “don’t publish this,” it can be easy to tell yourself you’re not being censored or that you are overreacting. Talk with your adviser, parents and the SPLC if you suspect you are receiving any pressure to hold or edit material that does not contain unprotected speech.
Can my principal ask to review something before we distribute it?
This is called “prior review,” and while it’s not expressly prohibited by this law there is certainly no need for your principal to engage in it unless they have reason to believe you are engaging in unprotected speech. In fact, the practice of mandatory prior review by administrators has been roundly condemned by every major journalism education group in the country as the wrong way to teach young journalists. If your principal asks to review your materials before publication, ask if there is anything they are concerned about. If your principal does engage in prior review and holds your work for more than 72 hours, you should contact the SPLC’s legal hotline at splc.org/legalhelp/.
What if my adviser or principal says something is unprotected and I disagree?
They should be able to tell you exactly why it is unprotected, including pointing to the specific law or rule you are violating or giving you a clear reason why they believe your work presents a material and substantial disruption. If they do not give you this information within 72 hours or you disagree with their decision, you should contact the SPLC’s legal hotline at splc.org/legalhelp.
I go to a private school. Am I protected?
This law does not apply to you at this time. Private schools have more ability to restrict student speech than public schools. However, you may still be able to push back against censorship at your school. Contact the SPLC’s legal hotline at splc.org/legalhelp for more information.
I am a college student. Am I protected?
This law does not apply to you at this time. However, state and federal courts have decided over 60 cases in the last four decades directly involving censorship of the public college and university student press. The decisions have been unanimous in their agreement that the First Amendment forbids almost all censorship of student-edited publications by school administrators. If you think you have been censored, contact the SPLC’s legal hotline at splc.org/legalhelp/.
Advisers
Summary
The law protects school employees from retaliation for protecting your students’ press rights. No public school employee may be “dismissed, suspended, disciplined, reassigned, transferred, or otherwise retaliated against” for refusing to censor or infringe upon protected student media.
Adviser protection
Often, advisers report that censorship of student media means professional consequences for them instead of academic ones for the student. Under this law, public school employees, including advisers, cannot be “dismissed, suspended, disciplined, reassigned, transferred, or otherwise retaliated against” for refusing to overrule, suppress or interfere with lawful student media expression.
Media content
Student editors “are responsible for determining the news, opinion and advertising content” of the media. While you may make suggestions and offer feedback, you cannot sway or overrule the students’ final decisions about what is, and what is not, included in student media. The law clarifies that you are permitted to teach “professional standards of English and journalism.”
Advisers are also allowed to “to establish or limit writing assignments for the students working with the publication and to otherwise direct and control the learning experience that the publication is intended to provide,” if the publication is being graded or for credit.
If you are being encouraged to make specific assignments in order to prevent students from publishing content that is not otherwise unprotected under this law, contact the SPLC’s legal hotline at splc.org/legalhelp/. You cannot be penalized for refusing to censor or infringe upon your students’ protected speech.
Prior restraint and prior review
Prior restraint is when a school official tells a student they cannot publish a story or takes action to prevent them from doing so. The law is clear that no school district shall exercise any kind of prior restraint unless the media includes the unprotected speech detailed below.
School officials sometimes engage in prior review, which is where they view student media before it is distributed. If your school officials engage in prior review and hold your student media for more than 72 hours, contact the SPLC’s legal hotline at splc.org/legalhelp/.
Unprotected speech
The law does allow for school officials to restrict student media content in some narrow circumstances.
Public school officials may only prohibit student journalist media that:
- Is obscene;
- Is libelous, slanderous, or defamatory under state law;
- Is false as to any person who is not a public figure or involved in a matter of public concern;
- Creates a clear and present danger of the commission of unlawful acts, the violation of lawful school regulations, or the material and substantial disruption of the orderly operation of the school;
- Violates the rights of others to privacy; or
- Threatens violence to property or persons.
Unless the student media meets these criteria, it cannot be restricted and you cannot be penalized for refusing to restrict it. If the student has a strong understanding of sound journalism practices and ethics, their work is unlikely to fall into any of these criteria.
Even if a student’s speech falls into one of these categories, it may be protected by the First Amendment or other laws. Just because this law says your speech can be censored for these reasons does not mean it should. If your student media is censored, contact the SPLC’s legal hotline immediately at splc.org/legalhelp/.
Censorship and retaliation
Censorship can take many forms, but in general it is any action that is meant to stop, dissuade, or discourage a student from producing or distributing student media. This can include, but is not limited to, strong suggestions that a story be withheld or changed, “reviewing” a student piece until the publication deadline has passed, threats to change a student’s grades unless an aspect of a student media piece is changed, or the disappearance/destruction of student media once it has been distributed.
Often, advisers report that the censorship took the form of professional consequences for them instead of academic ones for the student. This has included loss of funding for the student media program, adviser reassignment, meetings or phone calls with administrators in which the administration’s dislike of a story is the main topic, or pressure from other teachers and school employees. These actions are prohibited under the law. If you believe you have experienced or are at risk of retaliation, contact the SPLC’s legal hotline immediately at splc.org/legalhelp/.
If your student has been censored or you have been retaliated against
Contact the SPLC’s legal hotline at splc.org/legalhelp/. There are a range of options available to you.
FAQs
Can I suggest my students not run an article? What if my student produces something I suspect will be disruptive?
You can share your concerns with your students, but unless the work includes unprotected speech, the decision is ultimately theirs. If you believe your student is planning to distribute work which meets the criteria for unprotected speech, you should be as clear as possible with them about the concerns and the reasons why you believe their work is not protected by the Student Journalist Press Freedom Protection Act.
I work at a private school or in higher education. Am I protected?
The law does not expressly protect you at this time. However, your speech may still be protected by law. Contact the SPLC’s legal hotline at splc.org/legalhelp/ for more information.
What do I do if the administration tells me to edit or stop something from being distributed?
Contact the SPLC’s legal hotline at splc.org/legalhelp/.
School Officials
Summary
The law says that public school student journalists dictate the content of student media and cannot be censored except in certain specific circumstances. The law also prohibits terminating or otherwise disciplining a school employee who refuses to infringe upon a student’s press rights.
School-sponsored media
The law protects from censorship of anything that is “written substantially by students” and “made generally available throughout a public school.” This includes newspapers, yearbooks, broadcast channels, audio or video programs, literary magazines, and online publications.
Media content
Student editors are responsible for determining the news, opinion and advertising content of the media. While advisers may make suggestions and offer opinions, they cannot sway the students’ final decisions about what is, and what is not, included. This also means that student journalists are responsible for the final product, including receiving any praise, criticisms or (in very rare circumstances) lawsuits.
Prior restraint and prior review
Prior restraint is when a school official tells a student journalist they cannot publish a story, or takes any action to prevent the student journalist from doing so. Prior restraint is limited by the First Amendment and expressly prohibited by this law except when the media in question contains unprotected speech defined below.
Prior review is when a school official views the content of student media before it is published or distributed. The practice of mandatory prior review has been roundly condemned by nearly every major journalism education group in the country as the wrong way to teach young journalists. Prior review should be avoided unless there are specific, articulable concerns that the school-sponsored media contains unprotected speech
Unprotected speech
The law brings the speech rights of student journalists in line with the standard for all other student speech set forth in Tinker vs. Des Moines, and allows for the restriction of student media in certain narrow circumstances.
School officials may only prohibit school-sponsored media that:
- Is obscene;
- Is libelous, slanderous, or defamatory under state law;
- Is false as to any person who is not a public figure or involved in a matter of public concern;
- Creates a clear and present danger of the commission of unlawful acts, the violation of lawful school regulations, or the material and substantial disruption of the orderly operation of the school;
- Violates the rights of others to privacy; or
- Threatens violence to property or persons.
Unless the media meets these criteria, school officials cannot stop student journalists from producing or distributing their work.
Even if a student’s media falls into one of these categories, it may be protected by the First Amendment or other laws. Just because this law says student media can be censored for these reasons does not mean it should or that the censorship is lawful.
Material and substantial disruption
A substantial disruption is anything that could so interfere with the school day as to make school activities nearly impossible. The material and substantial disruption exemption applies only if a student journalist is inciting the disruption; reporting on a controversial topic is itself not sufficient cause for restricting student speech. These are taken on a case-by-case basis, but there should be an articulable risk of disruption, informed by specific facts, including past history at the school and current events influencing student behavior.
Whenever a risk of material and substantial disruption occurs, school officials should consider all other avenues of alleviating this disruption before resorting to censorship. School officials are required to inform student journalists before the censorship occurs why the censorship is necessary and give students the timely opportunity to appeal.
Types of censorship
Censorship can take many forms, but in general it is any action that is meant to stop, dissuade, or urge a student journalist not to produce or distribute student media. While some students have been explicitly told not to publish a particular story, others have faced more subtle forms of censorship. This can include, but is not limited to, strong suggestions that a story be withheld or changed, “reviewing” a student piece until the publication deadline has passed, threats to change a student’s grades certain aspects of a piece are changed, outright or suggested cuts to the student media program’s funding following a controversial piece, reassignment of the student media adviser, or the disappearance/destruction of student media once it has been distributed.
Adviser protection
Often, advisers report that the censorship took the form of professional consequences for them instead of academic ones for the student. This has included loss of funding for the class or club, adviser reassignment, meetings or phone calls with administrators in which the administration’s dislike of a story is the main topic, or pressure from other teachers and coaches. All of these actions are prohibited under the law, which expressly states that no public school employee may be “dismissed, suspended, disciplined, reassigned, transferred, or otherwise retaliated against” for protecting or refusing to infringe upon a student journalist who is not engaging in unprotected speech.
Student media policy
Every school district is required to have a written publications policy. This policy shall include “reasonable provisions for the time, place, and manner of student expression,” and must be “distributed, posted, or otherwise made available to all students and teachers” at the beginning of the school year. It cannot restrict student journalists’ speech further than this law allows. If your district does not have such a policy, they may inadvertently be violating the law and may be subject to penalties. A model policy is available via the Student Press Law Center.
If a student is unlawfully censored or an adviser retaliated against
They have a range of options available to them.
FAQs
Doesn’t Hazelwood give school administrators the right to restrict student media?
States are always able to extend more protections to their residents than Supreme Court decisions hold to be required. Colorado has joined a growing number of other states in extending stronger protections to student journalists and providing more concrete guidance to schools than that put forth by the U.S. Supreme Court in the Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier decision. Colorado then renewed that commitment to press freedom in 2020 by adding explicit protections for school officials who support lawful student speech.
What do I tell angry parents when a student writes a controversial article?
The law makes clear that student journalists alone determine the content of school-sponsored media and that no such media is an expression of school policy. Parents certainly have the option of registering their opinion with the student editor.
If my school is sued for libel or slander, who is responsible?
The student journalist. However, lawsuits against student journalists are exceedingly rare. (In fact, as of when this brochure went to press, there had not been a single officially reported case in the U.S. finding a school district liable for work published by its high school student media.)
Journalism standards and ethics prevent libel and slander. Schools should ensure that advisers and student journalists have adequate training and appropriate resources to thoroughly educate students on media law and journalistic ethics. Students can also reach out to the SPLC’s legal hotline for more guidance on libel and slander.
If student journalists report on rumors of a walkout, does that constitute a material and substantial disruption?
If they are simply reporting on information, no. The disruption already exists. If they are calling for a walkout and there is a history of such walkouts proving irreparably disruptive to the school, maybe. However, before resorting to the censorship of a student journalist you should consider whether the same call is already reaching students through social media and whether the work by the student journalist offers school officials an opportunity to engage in meaningful dialogue with the student body about their concerns.
Can I talk to a student journalist about my concerns relating to their article?
You can certainly help student journalists have as many facts as possible. Unless the media contains unprotected speech, you cannot require, suggest or encourage a student journalist to pull a story.
How can I get more information about the Student Free Expression Law and our rights and responsibilities?
Contact the SPLC’s legal hotline at splc.org/legalhelp/.
Resources
For more information or assistance on the Student Journalist Press Freedom Protection Act, student press freedom, or other issues regarding student media, please contact:
